J/ApJ/942/69 Red supergiants in M31, M33, SMC and LMC (Massey+, 2023)
The time-averaged mass-loss rates of red supergiants as revealed by their
luminosity functions in M31 and M33.
Massey P., Neugent K.F., Ekstrom S., Georgy C., Meynet G.
<Astrophys. J., 942, 69 (2023)>
=2023ApJ...942...69M 2023ApJ...942...69M
ADC_Keywords: Stars, supergiant; Magellanic Clouds; Radial velocities;
Photometry, infrared; Colors; Optical; Spectral types;
Effective temperatures
Keywords: Massive stars ; Stellar evolutionary tracks ; Red supergiant stars ;
Stellar mass loss
Abstract:
Mass loss in red supergiants (RSGs) is generally recognized to be
episodic, but mass-loss prescriptions fail to reflect this.
Evolutionary models show that the total amount of mass lost in this
phase determines if these stars evolve to warmer temperatures before
undergoing core collapse. The current Geneva evolutionary models mimic
episodic mass loss by enhancing the quiescent prescription rates
whenever the star's outer layers exceed the Eddington luminosity by a
large factor. This results in a 20M☉ model undergoing 10x more
mass loss than it would otherwise, but has little effect on models of
lower mass. We can test the validity of this approach observationally
by measuring the proportion of high-luminosity RSGs to that predicted
by the models. To do this, we use our recent luminosity-limited census
of RSGs in M31 and M33, making modest improvements to membership, and
adopting extinctions based on the recent panchromatic M31 and M33
Hubble surveys. We then compare the proportions of the highest
luminosity RSGs found to that predicted by published Geneva models, as
well as to a special set of models computed without the enhanced
rates. We find good agreement with the models which include the
supra-Eddington enhanced mass loss. The models with lower mass-loss
rates predict a larger fraction of high-luminosity RSGs than observed,
and thus can be ruled out. We also use these improved data to confirm
that the upper luminosity limit of RSGs is logL/L☉∼5.4,
regardless of metallicity, using our improved data on M31 and M33 plus
previous results on the Magellanic Clouds.
Description:
To construct the observed luminosity functions, we start with the
recent M31 and M33 red supergiant (RSG) candidate lists given by
Massey+ 2021, J/AJ/161/79 but modify what is included and the derived
luminosities as described in section 2.2.
Following improvements in the M31 and M33 RSG lists, we have
reconsidered both membership and luminosities to our SMC and LMC RSG
censuses (given in Massey+ 2021, J/ApJ/922/177 and
Neugent+ 2020, J/ApJ/900/118 respectively), and reissue our catalogs
here as Tables 4 and 5. See Section 3.
Objects:
--------------------------------------------------------------
RA (ICRS) DE Designation(s)
--------------------------------------------------------------
00 42 44.33 +41 16 07.5 M31 = NAME Andromeda Galaxy
01 33 50.89 +30 39 36.6 M33 = NAME Triangulum Galaxy
00 52 37.99 -72 48 01.0 SMC = NAME Small Magellanic Cloud
05 23 34.59 -69 45 21.9 LMC = NAME Large Magellanic Cloud
--------------------------------------------------------------
File Summary:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FileName Lrecl Records Explanations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ReadMe 80 . This file
table2.dat 128 7543 Red supergiants (RSGs) in M31
table3.dat 129 2962 RSGs in M33
table4.dat 144 1678 RSGs in the SMC
table5.dat 117 4075 RSGs in the LMC
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See also:
III/147 : Studies of LMC stellar content (Rousseau+ 1978)
II/236 : UBVR CCD survey of the Magellanic clouds (Massey+, 2002)
V/143 : Revised Bologna Catalog of M31 clusters, V.5 (Galleti+ 2012)
I/355 : Gaia DR3 Part 1. Main source (Gaia Collaboration, 2022)
J/A+AS/24/35 : LMC A-F supergiants (Stock+, 1976)
J/A+AS/30/261 : UBV and RVels of SMC Supergiants (Ardeberg+, 1977)
J/AJ/99/784 : IR photometry of LMC long-period variables (Hughes+ 1990)
J/ApJ/348/98 : LMC AGB stars IRAS fluxes (Reid+ 1990)
J/AJ/103/1205 : Stellar Content of LH 9 and 10 in the LMC (Parker+ 1992)
J/ApJ/501/153 : VRB photometry of red supergiants (Massey 1998)
J/AJ/119/2214 : Photometry of Magellanic OB associations (Massey+, 2000)
J/AJ/126/2867 : Red supergiants in Magellanic Clouds (Massey+, 2003)
J/A+A/416/917 : Revised Bologna Cat. of M31 GlCs (Galleti+, 2004)
J/AJ/128/1606 : Magellanic Clouds Photometric Survey: LMC (Zaritsky+, 2004)
J/AJ/131/2478 : M31 and M33 UBVRI photometry (Massey+, 2006)
J/AJ/132/866 : New M dwarfs in solar neighborhood (Riaz+, 2006)
J/AJ/134/447 : Cat. of star cluster candidates in M 33 (Sarajedini+, 2007)
J/A+A/487/131 : JHKs photometry of LPVs in M33 (Cioni+, 2008)
J/ApJ/703/441 : Yellow supergiants in M31 (Drout+, 2009)
J/A+A/496/841 : VLT-FLAMES survey of massive stars (Hunter+, 2009)
J/ApJ/703/420 : Red supergiants in M31 (Massey+, 2009)
J/MNRAS/395/1409 : Type II-P SN progenitor constraints (Smartt+, 2009)
J/ApJ/725/200 : An updated cat. of M31 globular-like clusters (Fan+, 2010)
J/ApJ/733/123 : The Wolf-Rayet content of M33 (NGC 598) (Neugent+, 2011)
J/ApJ/750/97 : The yellow and red supergiants of M33 (Drout+, 2012)
J/A+A/537/A146 : Stellar models with rot. 0.8<M<120, Z=0.014 (Ekstrom+, 2012)
J/MNRAS/425/355 : Hot stars in LMC UKST Hα survey (Reid+, 2012)
J/ApJ/758/133 : Metallicity profile of M31 HII reg and PNe (Sanders+, 2012)
J/ApJ/769/10 : Spectroscopy of M31 globular clusters (Jacoby+, 2013)
J/ApJ/802/127 : PHAT stellar cluster survey. II. AP catalog (Johnson+, 2015)
J/ApJ/824/42 : Star clusters in M31. VII. GlCs RVs (Caldwell+, 2016)
J/ApJ/826/224 : RSG and foreground candidates in M31 (Massey+, 2016)
J/AJ/152/62 : Revised LGGS UBVRI phot. of M31 & M33 stars (Massey+, 2016)
J/MNRAS/478/3138 : Luminous cool supergiants in Magellanic Clds (Davies+, 2018)
J/A+A/618/A137 : MC cool supergiants spectra (Dorda+, 2018)
J/ApJ/875/124 : Binary red supergiants. II. (Neugent+, 2019)
J/ApJ/900/118 : RSGs in LMC & sp. follow-up for LMC & SMC (Neugent+, 2020)
J/ApJ/889/44 : UKIRT obs. of red supergiants in M31 (Neugent+, 2020)
J/A+A/635/A29 : Multiplicity of red supergiants in NGC 330 (Patrick+, 2020)
J/A+A/639/A116 : RSGs in the SMC (Yang+, 2020)
J/ApJ/922/177 : 2MASS red supergiants in the SMC (Massey+, 2021)
J/AJ/161/79 : Red supergiant stars in M31 and M33 (Massey+, 2021)
J/other/Nat/594.365 : Betelgeuse during its Great Dimming (Montarges+, 2021)
J/ApJ/908/87 : 182 RSGs and OB-stars in M31 and M33 (Neugent, 2021)
J/ApJS/253/53 : PHATTER. I. HST obs. of stars in M33 (Williams+, 2021)
Byte-by-byte Description of file: table2.dat
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bytes Format Units Label Explanations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1- 2 I2 h RAh [0] Hour of Right ascension (J2000)
4- 5 I2 min RAm [38/46] Minute of Right ascension (J2000)
7- 12 F6.3 s RAs Second of Right ascension (J2000)
14 A1 --- DE- [+] Sign of the Declination (J2000)
15- 16 I2 deg DEd [40/42] Degree of Declination (J2000)
18- 19 I2 arcmin DEm Arcminute of Declination (J2000)
21- 25 F5.2 arcsec DEs Arcsecond of Declination (J2000)
27- 30 F4.2 --- Rho [0.06/0.75] Galactocentric distance;
R25 radii (1)
32- 37 F6.3 mag Ksmag [12.83/17.03] Apparent CFHT/WIRCAM Ks
magnitude (from Massey+ 2021, J/AJ/161/79)
39- 44 F6.3 mag e_Ksmag [0.001/0.7] Uncertainty in Ksmag
46- 51 F6.3 mag J-Ks [0.87/1.5] The (J-Ks) color index
53- 58 F6.3 mag e_J-Ks [0.001/0.7] Uncertainty in J-Ks
60- 61 I2 --- Nobs [0/4] Number of observations
63 I1 --- Mm [1/2] Membership based upon Gaia (2)
65- 69 I5 K Temp [3150/4300] Effective temperature;
computed using Av=1.0mag (G1)
71- 74 F4.2 [Lsun] LogLum [3.95/5.46] Log luminosity
computed using Av=1.0mag (G2)
76- 95 A20 --- LGGS LGGS Name (Massey+ 2006, J/AJ/131/2478);
if any
97-101 F5.2 mag Vmag [17.25/23.69]? LGGS V mag; if any
103-112 A10 --- SpType LGGS Spectral type; if any
115-120 F6.1 km/s RVel [-584/-35]? Radial velocity from
Massey & Evans (2016); if any
121 A1 --- u_RVel [:] Uncertainty flag on RVel
123-128 F6.1 km/s RVelExp [-537/-53]? Expected radial velocity;
if RVel listed
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note (1): Assumes an R25 radius of 95.3arcmin, inclination 77.0deg, and a
position angle of the major axis of 35.0deg. At a distance of
760kpc, a rho of 1.00 corresponds to 21.07kpc.
Note (2): M31 membership flag based upon Gaia data:
1 = membership uncertain (2800 occurrences)
2 = incomplete or no Gaia data (4743 occurrences)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Byte-by-byte Description of file: table3.dat
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bytes Format Units Label Explanations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1- 2 I2 h RAh [1] Hour of Right ascension (J2000)
4- 5 I2 min RAm [32/35] Minute of Right ascension (J2000)
7- 12 F6.3 s RAs Second of Right ascension (J2000)
14 A1 --- DE- [+] Sign of the Declination (J2000)
15- 16 I2 deg DEd [30/31] Degree of Declination (J2000)
18- 19 I2 arcmin DEm Arcminute of Declination (J2000)
21- 25 F5.2 arcsec DEs Arcsecond of Declination (J2000)
27- 30 F4.2 --- Rho [0.01/1] Galactocentric distance; R25 radii (1)
32- 37 F6.3 mag Kmag [12.78/17.3] Apparent UKIRT/WFCAM K magnitude
(from Massey+ 2021, J/AJ/161/79)
39- 44 F6.3 mag e_Kmag [0.001/0.11] Uncertainty in Kmag
46- 51 F6.3 mag J-Ks [0.79/1.5] The (J-Ks) color index
53- 58 F6.3 mag e_J-Ks [0.002/0.14] Uncertainty in J-Ks
60- 61 I2 --- Nobs [0/15] Number of observations
63 I1 --- Mm [1/2] Membership based upon Gaia (2)
65- 69 I5 K Temp [3200/4400] Effective temperature
computed using Av=0.80mag (G1)
71- 74 F4.2 [Lsun] LogLum [3.95/5.52] Log luminosity
computed using Av=0.80mag (G2)
76- 95 A20 --- LGGS LGGS Name (Massey+ 2006, J/AJ/131/2478); if any
97- 101 F5.2 mag Vmag [17.28/22.77]? LGGS V mag; if any
103- 112 A10 --- SpType LGGS Spectral type; if any
115- 121 F7.2 km/s RVel [-285/-58]? Radial velocity; if any (3)
122 A1 --- u_RVel [:] Uncertainty flag on RVel
124- 129 F6.1 km/s RVelExp [-263/-100]? Expected radial velocity; if
RVel listed
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note (1): Assumes an R25 radius of 30.8arcmin, inclination 56.0deg, and a
position angle of the major axis of 23.0deg. At a distance of
830kpc, a rho of 1.00 corresponds to 7.44kpc.
Note (2): M33 membership flag based upon Gaia data:
1 = membership uncertain (2666 occurrences)
2 = incomplete or no Gaia data (296 occurrences)
Note (3): The radial velocities for M33 were determined by
Drout+ (2012, J/ApJ/750/97), supplemented by the project described by
Beck & Massey (2017AAS...22943304B); the actual values are still in
preparation. See Section 2.2.4.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Byte-by-byte Description of file: table4.dat
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bytes Format Units Label Explanations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1- 17 A17 --- 2MASS 2MASS identifier (JHHMMSSss+DDMMSSs) (1)
19- 20 I2 h RAh [0/1] Hour of Right ascension (J2000)
22- 23 I2 min RAm Minute of Right ascension (J2000)
25- 30 F6.3 s RAs Second of Right ascension (J2000)
32 A1 --- DE- [-] Sign of the Declination (J2000)
33- 34 I2 deg DEd [70/75] Degree of Declination (J2000)
36- 37 I2 arcmin DEm Arcminute of Declination (J2000)
39- 43 F5.2 arcsec DEs Arcsecond of Declination (J2000)
45- 50 F6.3 mag Ksmag [7.42/12.5] Apparent 2MASS Ks magnitude
52- 56 F5.3 mag e_Ksmag [0.017/0.05] Uncertainty in Ksmag
58- 62 F5.3 mag J-Ks [0.70/1.56] The (J-Ks) color index
64- 68 F5.3 mag e_J-Ks [0.026/0.08] Uncertainty in J-Ks
70 I1 --- Mm [0/2] Membership based upon Gaia (2)
72- 75 I4 K Temp [3050/4500] Effective temperature
computed assuming Av=0.40mag (G1)
77- 80 F4.2 [Lsun] LogLum [3.49/5.5] Log luminosity
computed assuming Av=0.40mag (G2)
82- 91 A10 --- SpType Spectral Type
93- 94 I2 --- Ref [1/14]? Reference for spectral type (3)
96-113 A18 --- AltName Alternative name
115-144 A30 --- Comm Comment
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note (1): J00503062-6251298 was a misprint for J00503062-7251298 and
J0052563107324158 was a misprint for J00525631-7324159; corrected
at CDS. Both misprints are coming from Massey+ 2021, J/ApJ/922/177
Note (1): SMC membership flag based upon Gaia data:
0 = probable member (1612 occurrences)
1 = membership uncertain (37 occurrences)
2 = incomplete or no Gaia data (29 occurrences)
Note (2): Reference as follows:
1 = Levesque et al. (2006ApJ...645.1102L 2006ApJ...645.1102L)
2 = Massey et al. (2007ApJ...660..301M 2007ApJ...660..301M)
3 = Levesque et al. (2007ApJ...667..202L 2007ApJ...667..202L)
4 = Levesque et al. (2014MNRAS.443L..94L 2014MNRAS.443L..94L)
5 = Dorda et al. (2018A&A...618A.137D 2018A&A...618A.137D)
6 = Massey et al. (2021ApJ...922..177M 2021ApJ...922..177M)
7 = Neugent et al. (2020ApJ...900..118N 2020ApJ...900..118N)
8 = Neugent et al. (2019ApJ...875..124N 2019ApJ...875..124N)
9 = Dorda & Patrick (2021MNRAS.502.4890D 2021MNRAS.502.4890D)
10 = Patrick et al. (2020A&A...635A..29P 2020A&A...635A..29P)
11 = Elias et al. (1980ApJ...242L..13E 1980ApJ...242L..13E)
12 = Beasor et al. (2018MNRAS.479.3101B 2018MNRAS.479.3101B)
13 = Ardeberg & Maurice (1977A&AS...30..261A 1977A&AS...30..261A)
14 = Sanuleak (1989AJ.....98..825S 1989AJ.....98..825S)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Byte-by-byte Description of file: table5.dat
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bytes Format Units Label Explanations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1- 17 A17 --- 2MASS 2MASS identifier (JHHMMSSss+DDMMSSs)
19- 20 I2 h RAh [4/5] Hour of Right ascension (J2000)
22- 23 I2 min RAm Minute of Right ascension (J2000)
25- 30 F6.3 s RAs Second of Right ascension (J2000)
32 A1 --- DE- [-] Sign of the Declination (J2000)
33- 34 I2 deg DEd [65/72] Degree of Declination (J2000)
36- 37 I2 arcmin DEm Arcminute of Declination (J2000)
39- 43 F5.2 arcsec DEs Arcsecond of Declination (J2000)
45- 50 F6.3 mag Ksmag [6.6/12] Apparent 2MASS Ks magnitude
52- 56 F5.3 mag e_Ksmag [0.016/0.06] Uncertainty in Ksmag
58- 62 F5.3 mag J-Ks [0.79/1.65] The (J-Ks) color index
64- 68 F5.3 mag e_J-Ks [0.02/0.1] Uncertainty in J-Ks
70 I1 --- Mm [0/2] Membership based upon Gaia (1)
72- 75 I4 K Temp [2900/4400] Effective temperature
computed assuming Av=0.40mag (G1)
77- 80 F4.2 [Lsun] LogLum [3.5/5.6] Log luminosity
computed assuming Av=0.40mag (G2)
82- 91 A10 --- SpType Spectral Type
93- 94 I2 --- Ref [1/24]? Reference for spectral type (2)
96-117 A22 --- AltName Alternative name
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note (1): LMC membership flag based upon Gaia data:
0 = probable member (3955 occurrences)
1 = membership uncertain (81 occurrences)
2 = incomplete or no Gaia data (39 occurrences)
Note (2): References for spectral types as follows:
1 = van Loon et al. (2005A&A...438..273V 2005A&A...438..273V)
2 = Hughes & Wood (1990AJ.....99..784H 1990AJ.....99..784H)
3 = Heydari-Malayeri et al. (1990A&A...236L..21H 1990A&A...236L..21H)
4 = Morgan et al. (1992A&AS...93..495M 1992A&AS...93..495M)
5 = Parker et al. (1992AJ....103.1205P 1992AJ....103.1205P)
6 = Stock et al. (1976A&AS...24...35S 1976A&AS...24...35S)
7 = Oey (1996ApJ...465..231O 1996ApJ...465..231O)
8 = Massey & Olsen (2003AJ....126.2867M 2003AJ....126.2867M)
9 = Levesque et al. (2006ApJ...645.1102L 2006ApJ...645.1102L)
10 = Cowley & Hartwick (1991ApJ...373...80C 1991ApJ...373...80C)
11 = Riaz et al. (2006AJ....132..866R 2006AJ....132..866R)
12 = Wolf et al. (1987A&A...186..182W 1987A&A...186..182W)
13 = Reid et al. (1990ApJ...348...98R 1990ApJ...348...98R)
14 = Hughes et al. (1991AJ....101.1304H 1991AJ....101.1304H)
15 = Reid & Mould (1985ApJ...299..236R 1985ApJ...299..236R)
16 = Massey et al. (2000AJ....119.2214M 2000AJ....119.2214M)
17 = Dorda et al. (2018A&A...618A.137D 2018A&A...618A.137D)
18 = Rousseau et al. (1978A&AS...31..243R 1978A&AS...31..243R)
19 = Reid & Parker (2012MNRAS.425..355R 2012MNRAS.425..355R)
20 = Feast (1979MNRAS.186..831F 1979MNRAS.186..831F)
21 = Humphreys (1974ApJ...190L.133H 1974ApJ...190L.133H)
22 = Massey et al. (1989AJ.....97..107M 1989AJ.....97..107M)
23 = Sanduleak & Philip (1977PW&SO...2..105S 1977PW&SO...2..105S)
24 = Westerlund et al. (1981A&AS...43..267W 1981A&AS...43..267W)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Global notes:
Note (G1): Typical uncertainty 150 K.
Note (G2): Typical uncertainty 0.05 dex.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
History:
From electronic version of the journal
(End) Prepared by [AAS], Emmanuelle Perret [CDS] 15-Nov-2024